British crown

Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Monarchy
Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Incumbent: Elizabeth II
Style:	Her Majesty
Heir apparent:	Charles, Prince of Wales
First monarch:	Anne (with Ireland George III)
Formation:	1 May 1707 (inclusion of Ireland 1 January 1801)

United Kingdom

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of the United Kingdom

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The monarchy of the United Kingdom (commonly referred to as the British monarchy)^[1] is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories.

The present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties. As a constitutional monarch, the Queen is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours. Though the ultimate executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, in practice these powers are only used according to laws enacted in Parliament or within the constraints of convention and precedent. On the whole, the Queen must follow the advice of government ministers.

The British monarchy can trace its origins back to the kings of the Angles and the early Scottish kings.^[2] By the year 1000, the kingdoms of England and Scotland had resolved from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Britain. The last Anglo-Saxon monarch (Harold II) was defeated and killed in the Norman invasion of 1066 and the English monarchy passed to the Norman conquerors. In the thirteenth century, the principality of Wales was absorbed by England, and the Magna Carta began the process of reducing the political powers of the monarch. From 1603, when the Scottish king James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both kingdoms were ruled by a single monarch. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England that followed the War of the Three Kingdoms. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain and, in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world^[3] at its greatest extent in 1921. In 1922, most of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, but in law the monarch remained sovereign there until 1949. After World War II, the declaration of Indian independence effectively brought the British Empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of the independent countries comprising the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1931, the unitary British monarchy throughout the empire was split into legally distinct crowns for each of the Commonwealth realms. At present, 15 other independent Commonwealth countries are in personal union with the United Kingdom, sharing the same monarch.

Constitutional role

In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom political power is ultimately exercised by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, of which the Sovereign is a non-partisan component; the others are the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Political power is exercised by the Houses of Parliament, and by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The monarchy is constitutional; the Sovereign's role is limited to non-partisan functions such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century; in 1867 the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy as the "dignified part" rather than the "efficient part" of government.^[4]

The English Bill of Rights of 1689 curtailed the monarch's governmental power.

Whenever necessary, the Sovereign is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister; the appointment is formalised at a ceremony known as Kissing Hands.^[5] In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. In a "hung parliament", in which no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command most support, but it would usually be the leader of the largest party.^[6][7] For example, following the February 1974 general election, after failed negotiations between Edward Heath and Liberal leader Jeremy Thorpe, Heath resigned and Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister although his Labour Party did not have a majority. According to Lascelles Principles, if a minority government tried to dissolve Parliament to call an election early to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse and allow opposition parties to form a coalition government. Harold Wilson's February 1974 minority government called an early election in October 1974, which gave it a small majority.^[8] The monarch may in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but in practice a Prime Minister's term comes to an end only with death, resignation or electoral defeat. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834.^[9]

The Sovereign appoints and dismisses Cabinet and other ministers, on the Prime Minister's advice—in practice, the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, exercises control over the composition of the government. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister and regular audiences with other members of the Cabinet. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the Prime Minister's and Cabinet's decisions (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: "the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights—the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn."^[10]

The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament,^[11] and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales.^[12] In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.^[13]

The Sovereign is the Head of State in the United Kingdom. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen, and her lawful successors.^[14] God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem,^[15] and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, and banknotes.^[16]

Royal Prerogative

Main article: Royal Prerogative

The executive authority of the government is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign, collectively known as the Royal Prerogative. The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to dissolve Parliament, regulate the civil service, issue passports, make treaties or send ambassadors, and the duties to defend the realm and maintain the Queen's peace.^[17] Though parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the Royal Prerogative, the monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, only exercising the Royal Prerogative on the advice of ministers.^[18] Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive, it is limited. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. The Consent of the Crown must be obtained before either House can debate a bill affecting the Sovereign's prerogatives or interests. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers";^[17] Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation; many Crown prerogatives have been permanently transferred to Parliament, or have fallen out of use, and more may follow in the future.

It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the Throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda.^[19] Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session.^[20] Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by general elections for all seats in the House of Commons. These powers, however, are always exercised on the Prime Minister's advice. The timing of a dissolution is affected by a variety of factors. No parliamentary term may last more than five years; at the end of this period, a dissolution is automatic under the Parliament Act 1911.^[21] However, the Prime Minister normally chooses the most politically opportune moment for his or her party. Per the Lascelles Principles, the Sovereign may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear.^[22]

Before a bill can become law, the Royal Assent (the monarch's approval) is required.^[23] The Sovereign may, in theory, either "grant" the Royal Assent (make the bill law) or "withhold" the Royal Assent (veto the bill). In modern practice the Royal Assent is always granted; the last monarch to withhold Assent was Anne, who rejected a Scots militia bill in 1708.^[24] There is no provision for Parliamentary override of a veto (lack of Royal Assent) comparable to a U.S. Congressional (legislative) override of a President's veto.^[25] The Great Seal of the Realm authenticates important official documents, including letters patent, proclamations and writs of election. It is in the custody of the Lord Chancellor. For matters relating exclusively to Scotland or Northern Ireland, the Great Seal of Scotland or the Great Seal of Northern Ireland are used.

In domestic affairs, the Crown is responsible for the appointment and dismissal of ministers, Privy Counsellors, members of various executive agencies and other officials. Effectively, however, the appointees are chosen by the Prime Minister, or, for less important offices, by other ministers. In addition, the monarch is commander in chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force). It is the Sovereign's prerogative to declare war, make peace and direct the actions of the military, although the Prime Minister holds de facto decision-making power. Many of the Sovereign's prerogative powers are exercised through the Privy Council.

In foreign affairs, the Sovereign may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements; no parliamentary approval is required although this right is exercised through the Government of the day. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The Sovereign accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.

The Sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice"; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.^[17][18]

The monarch is the "fount of honour", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours.^[26] In practice, peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister. Some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice—the monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.^[27]

History

English monarchy

See also: List of English monarchs

Following the Viking raids and settlement of the ninth century, the kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex and achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title "King of the English". His grandson Athelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, but even by the reign of Edgar England was not beyond fracturing into its constituent parts. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for some years. William, Duke of Normandy's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralization of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.

The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest of 1066.

William I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the Throne, and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power but he agreed to a compromise under which he would be succeeded by Matilda's son Henry, who accordingly became the first monarch of the Angevin, or Plantagenet, dynasty as Henry II in 1154.^[28]

The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom. Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. When he died, John succeeded him. John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing the Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III.^[29] Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory, and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.^[30]

The next monarch, Edward I, was far more successful in maintaining royal power, and was responsible for the conquest of Wales and attempted to establish English domination in Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility.^[31] Edward II was, in 1311, forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella. His 14-year-old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Edward III's campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374 all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was imprisoned and murdered, and Henry became king.^[32]

Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the Throne, and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.^[33] The unpopularity of Henry's counsellors, and his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son Edward led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during the reigns of the Yorkists Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch, led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.^[34]

Now as King Henry VII, Henry Tudor neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir and the Wars of the Roses came to an end. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end.^[35] The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break away from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).^[36] Wales, which had been conquered centuries earlier but had remained a separate dominion, was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.^[37] Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed to the Throne, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign however lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her, and declared herself the lawful Sovereign. Mary I pursued disastrous wars in France and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, in the process burning Protestants at the stake as heretics. She died in 1558, and was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism, and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.^[38]

Scottish monarchy

See also: List of Scottish monarchs

In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of Rome in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts (who inhabited the kingdom of Pictavia), the Britons (who lived in several kingdoms in southern Scotland, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde), and the Gaels, or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish province of Dál Riata. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the founder of the dynasty that created united Scotland (or kingdom of Alba). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were conquered.

Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of alternating segments was followed, as in Ireland and previously among the Picts. The monarchy alternated between two, sometimes three, branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. The problems relating to succession were especially illustrated by the period from 942 to 1005, during which seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. The rotation of the monarchy between different lines was abandoned after Malcolm II ascended the throne in 1005 having killed many rivals. Thus, when Duncan I succeeded Malcolm II in 1034, he did so with no recorded opposition.

In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Donald's son Malcolm. The following year, after the murder of Macbeth's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III, becoming the first monarch of the House of Dunkeld.

From 1107 Scotland was briefly partitioned under the will of Edgar, who divided his dominions between his eldest surviving brother Alexander I (who ruled northern Scotland as a king) and his younger brother David (who ruled southern Scotland as an earl). After Alexander's death in 1124, David inherited his dominions, and Scotland became unified once more. David was succeeded by the ineffective Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England; however, the rebellion failed, and William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.

Alexander III's death in 1286 brought his three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter Margaret to the throne. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, precipitating a major succession crisis, during which there were 13 rival claimants. Several Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England to settle the dispute. A court was set up with the Balliol and Bruce "factions" each nominating "assessors". Contrary to popular opinion, Edward did not choose John Balliol to be king. Balliol won the overwhelming support of the majority of assessors. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert considerable influence over Scottish affairs. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded and conquered Scotland. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch present; however, it was informally led by William Wallace. After Wallace's execution in 1305, Robert the Bruce took over and declared himself king. Robert's efforts culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died, and the English again invaded under the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, to the throne. Nonetheless, during further military campaigns, Scotland once again won its independence under Robert the Bruce's son David II.

In 1371, David II was succeeded by Robert II, the first Scottish monarch from the House of Stewart (later Stuart). The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; in order to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen. At the same time, however, the Estates of Scotland (the Scottish Parliament) became increasingly powerful, often openly defying the King. Parliamentary power reached its zenith during the reign of the ineffective King James III. As a result, James IV and his successors tended to avoid calling parliamentary sessions, thereby checking the power of the Estates.

In 1513, James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and over 10,000 soldiers were killed. As James IV's son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was taken over by regents. After he reached adulthood, James ruled successfully until another disastrous war with the English in 1542. James's death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary; once again, a regency was established. Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. Due to the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused considerable alarm by marrying a fellow Catholic, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate and to flee to England (where she was imprisoned and later executed by Elizabeth I). The Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. James VI became King of England and Scotland upon the death of Elizabeth I.

Personal union and republican phase

In 1603, James VI and I was the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together.

Elizabeth's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. She had no children, and was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch—James I became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604^[39]—they remained separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640 (the "Eleven Years' Tyranny"), unilaterally levying taxes, and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). In 1642, the conflict between King and Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.^[40] The war culminated in the execution of the king, the overthrow of the monarchy, and the establishment of a republic known as the Commonwealth of England. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon abdicated, allowing the brief re-establishment of the Commonwealth. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored when Charles I's son Charles II was declared king.

Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the "Petitioners", who supported it, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers", who opposed it, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled as an absolute monarch until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies (see Seven Bishops). As a result, a group of Protestant nobles and other notable citizens known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary II and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm on 23 December of the same year. On 12 February 1689, the Convention Parliament declared that James's flight constituted an abdication, and that William III and Mary II (not James II's Catholic son James Francis Edward Stuart) were joint Sovereigns of England and Ireland. The Scottish Estates soon followed suit.

James's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights also required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of the Princess Anne's children had died, leaving Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament, afraid that the former James II or his Roman Catholic relatives might attempt to reclaim the Throne, passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded them from the line of succession and made William's distant Protestant cousin Sophia, Electress of Hanover, second-in-line to the throne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to his sister-in-law Anne.

After the 1707 Acts of Union

England and Scotland were united as Great Britain under Queen Anne in 1707.

After Anne's accession, the succession issue quickly re-emerged. The Scottish Estates, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia of Hanover, passed the Act of Security, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Act of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.

In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by the son of the deceased Sophia of Hanover, George I, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719.^[41] The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union.^[42] Instead, much of George's power shifted to his ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first (unofficial) Prime Minister of Great Britain.^[43] The decline of the influence of the monarch and the rise of the power of the Prime Minister and Cabinet continued during the reign of the next monarch, George II, but was slowed during that of George III. George III resisted attempts by his ministers to assume more power for themselves, and acted to keep the Tories (who favoured royal control in government more than the Whigs) in power whenever possible. George III's reign also marked the union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom under the Act of Union 1800. At the same time, George III dropped the claim to the French Throne, which had been nominally made by all English monarchs since Edward III.^[44]

The union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom occurred in 1801 during the reign of King George III.

From 1811 to 1820 George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined further and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, the Whigs maintained a large majority in the House of Commons; they forced Peel to resign by blocking most of his legislation, thus leaving the King with no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. Since 1834, no monarch has appointed or dismissed a Prime Minister contrary to the will of the House of Commons. William IV's reign was also marked by the passage of the Great Reform Act, which reformed parliamentary representation and abolished many rotten boroughs. Together with others passed later in the century that act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise, and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.

The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian Era was a historic one for the United Kingdom, and was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.

Victoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed "Saxe-Coburg-Gotha" to "Windsor" due to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.

Shared monarchy

Map of the British Empire in 1921

Map of the Commonwealth realms today

The 53-member Commonwealth of Nations developed from the British Empire during the twentieth-century. Prior to 1926 the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively, the Dominions and Crown colonies being subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931,^[45] which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries".^[46] The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Australia, monarch of Canada, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth, known as the Commonwealth realms, would share the same monarch and be in personal union with one another.^{[47][48][49][50]}

George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American, Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth realms granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI.^[51] George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. After the war George VI relinquished the title "Emperor of India", when India became independent in 1947, and became "King of India" instead.^[52]

At first, every member of the Commonwealth was a Commonwealth realm but when India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as "Head of the Commonwealth" in all Commonwealth member states, whether realms or not. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth Heads of Government.^[53]

Modern status

Today, 16 of the 53 independent states within the Commonwealth, including the United Kingdom, remain Commonwealth realms and share the same monarch. The present monarch, Elizabeth II succeeded her father, George VI, in 1952. Like her recent predecessors, Elizabeth II continues to function as a constitutional monarch. During her reign, there has been some support for the republican movement, especially due to negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales).^[54] Nevertheless, though polls showed that a large majority of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy,^[55] in June 2008, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) suggested that the British government hold a referendum "on the desirability or otherwise of a written constitution", and, at the urging of the Sri Lankan envoy on the UNHRC, "preferably republican".^[56] The UNHRC report was rejected by Prime Minister Gordon Brown. A statement from the Cabinet affirmed that the government felt the Queen to be "vital to Britain's unity", and expressed support for keeping her as head of state.

Monarchy in Ireland

See also: List of Irish monarchs

In the 12th century the only English pope, Adrian IV, authorized King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. Celtic Christianity was not closely following Roman Catholic practices, and was accused of heretical beliefs. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome.^[57]

Around 1170, King Dermot MacMurrough of Leinster was deposed by his arch-enemy King Rory O'Connor of Connaught. Dermot escaped to England and asked Henry for help. Henry let him to use a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Dermot and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. As a reward, Dermot let de Clare marry his daughter. When Dermot died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster.^[58] Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman state or a place of refuge for Anglo-Saxons, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and some Gaelic Irish chieftains to recognize him as their overlord.^[59]

By 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and made England Protestant. The pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland, thus making the island a kingdom in personal union with the kingdom of England.^[59]

In 1800, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State.^[60] Ireland was a separate kingdom in personal union with Great Britain from 1922 until 1949, when the Free State became a republic and severed all ties with the monarchy, while Northern Ireland remained within the Union, thus creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.^[61]

Religious role

The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion.^[62][63] The monarch is an ordinary member, of the Church of Scotland, but he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly.^[64] The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.

Succession

Main articles: Succession to the British Throne and Coronation of the British monarch

The personal union relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes, the most important being the Bill of Rights 1689 and Act of Settlement 1701, and by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same sex. The rules of succession may be changed by an Act of Parliament.

The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the natural legitimate descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I. The Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement include religious restrictions, which were imposed because of the English and Scots' distrust of Roman Catholicism during the late 17th century. Only individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Catholics and spouses of Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed "naturally dead" for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate descendants. In recent years there have been efforts to remove the religious restrictions and to give equal rights to males and females, but at present the provisions remain in effect.^[65][66]

Upon the death of the Sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase "The King is dead. Long live the King!"), and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St. James's Palace.^[67] The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign, indeed the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.^[68]

After an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.

Regency

Main articles: Regency Acts and Counsellor of State

The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.^[69]

During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales, Prince William of Wales, Prince Henry of Wales and The Duke of York.^[70]

Finances

Main article: Privy Purse

Parliament meets much of the sovereign's official expenditure from public funds, known as the Civil List and the Grants-in-Aid. An annual Property Services Grant-in-Aid pays for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid pays for travel. The Civil List covers most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size is fixed by parliament every 10 years; any money saved may be carried forward to the next 10-year period.^[71]

Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persists. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate have by far exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid provided to the monarch.^[71] For example, the Crown Estate produced £200 million for the Treasury in the financial year 2007–8, whereas parliamentary funding for the monarch was £40 million during the same period.^[72] The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, worth over £7.3 billion.^[73]

Like the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the Civil List.^[74] The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as the value added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. The Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure.^[75]

Estimates of the Queen's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. For example, the Royal Collection is not the personal property of the monarch but is administered by the Royal Collection Trust, a registered charity.^[76] Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at $650 million in 2008,^[77] but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were "grossly overstated".^[78]

Residences

Buckingham Palace, the monarch's principal residence

Holyrood Palace, the monarch's official Scottish residence

The Sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies.^[79] Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world,^[80] which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar.^[81] The Sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.^[82]

Historically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall which was destroyed by fire in 1698,^[83] to be replaced by St James's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace^[84] and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St. James's,^[85][86] and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council.^[67] It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.^[84]

Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch.^[87] The Queen also owns two private estates as personal property: Sandringham House in Norfolk, and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire, Scotland.^[88]

Style

Main article: Style of the British Sovereign

The present Sovereign's full style and title is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".^[89] The title "Head of the Commonwealth" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown.^[53] Pope Leo X first granted the title "Defender of the Faith" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments.^[90] After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.^[91]

The Sovereign is known as "His Majesty" or "Her Majesty". The form "Britannic Majesty" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name—King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names. The ordinal used for the monarch takes into account only monarchs since the Norman conquest of England. If only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as "Victoria I". The question of whether numbering of ordinals is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of "Elizabeth II", on the grounds that there had never been an "Elizabeth I" in Scotland. In MacCormick v. Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Act of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals.^[92] The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors".^[93] According to Debrett^[94] it was announced that future monarchs would apply this policy. Traditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch's signature is "Elizabeth R". From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), due to their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as "Victoria RI" from 1877.

Arms

Main article: Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom

The Royal Standard is the Sovereign's official flag in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

A slightly different form of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland.

The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom, are "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]". The supporters are the lion and the unicorn; the motto is "Dieu et mon droit" (French for "God and my Right". In Scotland the monarch uses an alternative form of the Arms of Dominion in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The motto is "Nemo me impune lacessit" (Latin for "No-one provokes me with impunity"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion.

The monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present; elsewhere, the Union Flag is flown. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.^[95]

Notes