Nobel Laureate

This is a list of Nobel Prize laureates awarded for their outstanding contributions to humanitarian causes for peace, work in literature and in the science disciplines for chemistry, medicine and physiology, physics and economics.

Contents 1 Physics 2 Chemistry 3 Physiology or medicine 4 Literature 5 Peace 6 Economics 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Physics

Main article: Nobel Prize in Physics

1901: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen 1902: Hendrik A. Lorentz / Pieter Zeeman 1903: Henri Becquerel / Pierre Curie / Maria Sklodowska-Curie 1904: Lord Rayleigh 1905: Philipp Lenard 1906: J.J. Thomson 1907: Albert A. Michelson 1908: Gabriel Lippmann 1909: Guglielmo Marconi / Ferdinand Braun 1910: Johannes Diderik van der Waals 1911: Wilhelm Wien 1912: Gustaf Dalén 1913: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes 1914: Max von Laue 1915: William Henry Bragg / William Lawrence Bragg 1916: no award 1917: Charles Glover Barkla 1918: Max Planck 1919: Johannes Stark 1920: Charles Edouard Guillaume 1921: Albert Einstein 1922: Niels Bohr 1923: Robert A. Millikan 1924: Manne Siegbahn 1925: James Franck / Gustav Hertz 1926: Jean Baptiste Perrin 1927: Arthur H. Compton / C.T.R. Wilson 1928: Owen Willans Richardson 1929: Louis de Broglie 1930: Venkata Raman 1931: no award 1932: Werner Heisenberg 1933: Erwin Schrödinger / Paul A.M. Dirac 1934: no award 1935: James Chadwick 1936: Victor F. Hess / Carl D. Anderson 1937: Clinton Davisson / George Paget Thomson 1938: Enrico Fermi 1939: Ernest Lawrence 1940: no award 1941: no award 1942: no award 1943: Otto Stern 1944: Isidor Isaac Rabi 1945: Wolfgang Pauli 1946: Percy W. Bridgman 1947: Edward V. Appleton 1948: Patrick M.S. Blackett 1949: Hideki Yukawa 1950: Cecil Powell 1951: John Cockcroft / Ernest T.S. Walton 1952: Felix Bloch / E. M. Purcell 1953: Frits Zernike 1954: Max Born / Walther Bothe 1955: Willis E. Lamb / Polykarp Kusch

1956: William B. Shockley / John Bardeen / Walter H. Brattain 1957: Chen Ning Yang / Tsung-Dao Lee 1958: Pavel A. Cherenkov / Il´ja M. Frank / Igor Y. Tamm 1959: Emilio Segrè / Owen Chamberlain 1960: Donald A. Glaser 1961: Robert Hofstadter / Rudolf Mössbauer 1962: Lev Landau 1963: Eugene Wigner / Maria Goeppert-Mayer / J. Hans D. Jensen 1964: Charles H. Townes / Nicolay G. Basov / Aleksandr M. Prokhorov 1965: Sin-Itiro Tomonaga / Julian Schwinger / Richard P. Feynman 1966: Alfred Kastler 1967: Hans Bethe 1968: Luis Alvarez 1969: Murray Gell-Mann 1970: Hannes Alfvén / Louis Néel 1971: Dennis Gabor 1972: John Bardeen / Leon Neil Cooper / Robert Schrieffer 1973: Leo Esaki / Ivar Giaever / Brian D. Josephson 1974: Martin Ryle / Antony Hewish 1975: Aage N. Bohr / Ben R. Mottelson / James Rainwater 1976: Burton Richter / Samuel C.C. Ting 1977: Philip W. Anderson / Sir Nevill F. Mott / John H. van Vleck 1978: Pyotr Kapitsa / Arno Penzias / Robert Woodrow Wilson 1979: Sheldon Glashow / Abdus Salam / Steven Weinberg 1980: James Cronin / Val Fitch 1981: Nicolaas Bloembergen / Arthur L. Schawlow / Kai M. Siegbahn 1982: Kenneth G. Wilson 1983: Subramanyan Chandrasekhar / William A. Fowler 1984: Carlo Rubbia / Simon van der Meer 1985: Klaus von Klitzing 1986: Ernst Ruska / Gerd Binnig / Heinrich Rohrer 1987: J. Georg Bednorz / K. Alex Müller 1988: Leon M. Lederman / Melvin Schwartz / Jack Steinberger 1989: Norman F. Ramsey / Hans G. Dehmelt / Wolfgang Paul 1990: Jerome I. Friedman / Henry W. Kendall / Richard E. Taylor 1991: Pierre-Gilles de Gennes 1992: Georges Charpak 1993: Russell A. Hulse / Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. 1994: Bertram N. Brockhouse / Clifford G. Shull 1995: Martin L. Perl / Frederick Reines 1996: David M. Lee / Douglas D. Osheroff / Robert Coleman Richardson 1997: Steven Chu / Claude Cohen-Tannoudji / William D. Phillips 1998: Robert B. Laughlin / Horst L. Störmer / Daniel C. Tsui 1999: Gerardus 't Hooft / Martinus J.G. Veltman 2000: Zhores I. Alferov / Herbert Kroemer / Jack S. Kilby 2001: Eric A. Cornell / Wolfgang Ketterle / Carl E. Wieman 2002: Raymond Davis, Jr. / Masatoshi Koshiba / Riccardo Giacconi 2003: Alexei A. Abrikosov / Vitaly L. Ginzburg / Anthony J. Leggett 2004: David J. Gross / H. David Politzer / Frank Wilczek 2005: Roy J. Glauber / John L. Hall / Theodor W. Hänsch 2006: John C. Mather / George F. Smoot 2007: Albert Fert / Peter Grünberg

Chemistry

Main article: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1901: Jacobus H. van 't Hoff 1902: Emil Fischer 1903: Svante Arrhenius 1904: Sir William Ramsay 1905: Adolf von Baeyer 1906: Henri Moissan 1907: Eduard Buchner 1908: Ernest Rutherford 1909: Wilhelm Ostwald 1910: Otto Wallach 1911: Maria Skłodowska-Curie 1912: Victor Grignard / Paul Sabatier 1913: Alfred Werner 1914: Theodore William Richards 1915: Richard Willstätter 1916: no award 1917: no award 1918: Fritz Haber 1919: no award 1920: Walther Nernst 1921: Frederick Soddy 1922: Francis W. Aston 1923: Fritz Pregl 1924: no award 1925: Richard Zsigmondy 1926: The Svedberg 1927: Heinrich Wieland 1928: Adolf Windaus 1929: Arthur Harden / Hans von Euler-Chelpin 1930: Hans Fischer 1931: Carl Bosch / Friedrich Bergius 1932: Irving Langmuir 1933: no award 1934: Harold C. Urey 1935: Frédéric Joliot-Curie / Irène Joliot-Curie 1936: Peter Debye 1937: Norman Haworth / Paul Karrer 1938: Richard Kuhn 1939: Adolf Butenandt / Leopold Ruzicka 1940: no award 1941: no award 1942: no award 1943: George de Hevesy 1944: Otto Hahn 1945: Artturi Virtanen 1946: James B. Sumner / John H. Northrop / Wendell M. Stanley 1947: Sir Robert Robinson 1948: Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius 1949: William F. Giauque 1950: Otto Diels / Kurt Alder 1951: Edwin M. McMillan / Glenn T. Seaborg 1952: Archer J.P. Martin / Richard L.M. Synge 1953: Hermann Staudinger 1954: Linus Pauling

1955: Vincent du Vigneaud 1956: Sir Cyril Hinshelwood / Nikolay Semenov 1957: Lord Todd 1958: Frederick Sanger 1959: Jaroslav Heyrovský 1960: Willard F. Libby 1961: Melvin Calvin 1962: Max F. Perutz / John C. Kendrew 1963: Karl Ziegler / Giulio Natta 1964: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin 1965: Robert Burns Woodward 1966: Robert S. Mulliken 1967: Manfred Eigen / Ronald G.W. Norrish / George Porter 1968: Lars Onsager 1969: Derek Barton / Odd Hassel 1970: Luis Leloir 1971: Gerhard Herzberg 1972: Christian Anfinsen / Stanford Moore / William H. Stein 1973: Ernst Otto Fischer / Geoffrey Wilkinson 1974: Paul J. Flory 1975: John Cornforth / Vladimir Prelog 1976: William Lipscomb 1977: Ilya Prigogine 1978: Peter Mitchell 1979: Herbert C. Brown / Georg Wittig 1980: Paul Berg / Walter Gilbert / Frederick Sanger 1981: Kenichi Fukui / Roald Hoffmann 1982: Aaron Klug 1983: Henry Taube 1984: Bruce Merrifield 1985: Herbert A. Hauptman / Jerome Karle 1986: Dudley R. Herschbach / Yuan T. Lee / John C. Polanyi 1987: Donald J. Cram / Jean-Marie Lehn / Charles J. Pedersen 1988: Johann Deisenhofer / Robert Huber / Hartmut Michel 1989: Sidney Altman / Thomas R. Cech 1990: Elias James Corey 1991: Richard R. Ernst 1992: Rudolph A. Marcus 1993: Kary B. Mullis / Michael Smith 1994: George A. Olah 1995: Paul J. Crutzen / Mario J. Molina / F. Sherwood Rowland 1996: Robert F. Curl, Jr. / Sir Harold Kroto / Richard E. Smalley 1997: Paul D. Boyer / John E. Walker / Jens C. Skou 1998: Walter Kohn / John Pople 1999: Ahmed Zewail 2000: Alan Heeger / Alan G. MacDiarmid / Hideki Shirakawa 2001: William S. Knowles / Ryoji Noyori / K. Barry Sharpless 2002: John B. Fenn / Koichi Tanaka / Kurt Wüthrich 2003: Peter Agre / Roderick MacKinnon 2004: Aaron Ciechanover / Avram Hershko / Irwin Rose 2005: Robert Grubbs / Richard Schrock / Yves Chauvin 2006: Roger D. Kornberg 2007: Gerhard Ertl

Physiology or medicine

Main article: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

1901: Emil von Behring 1902: Ronald Ross 1903: Niels Ryberg Finsen 1904: Ivan Pavlov 1905: Robert Koch 1906: Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1907: Alphonse Laveran 1908: Ilya Mechnikov / Paul Ehrlich 1909: Theodor Kocher 1910: Albrecht Kossel 1911: Allvar Gullstrand 1912: Alexis Carrel 1913: Robert Bárány 1914: no award 1915: no award 1916: no award 1917: no award 1918: no award 1919: Jules Bordet 1920: August Krogh 1921: no award 1922: Archibald Vivian Hill / Otto Meyerhof 1923: Frederick G. Banting / John James Richard Macleod 1924: Willem Einthoven 1925: no award 1926: Johannes Fibiger 1927: Julius Wagner-Jauregg 1928: Charles Nicolle 1929: Christiaan Eijkman / Sir Frederick Hopkins 1930: Karl Landsteiner 1931: Otto Heinrich Warburg 1932: Sir Charles Sherrington / Edgar Adrian 1933: Thomas H. Morgan 1934: George H. Whipple / George R. Minot / William P. Murphy 1935: Hans Spemann 1936: Sir Henry Dale / Otto Loewi 1937: Albert Szent-Györgyi 1938: Corneille Heymans 1939: Gerhard Domagk 1940: no award 1941: no award 1942: no award 1943: Henrik Dam / Edward A. Doisy 1944: Joseph Erlanger / Herbert S. Gasser 1945: Sir Alexander Fleming / Ernst B. Chain / Sir Howard Florey 1946: Hermann J. Muller 1947: Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay 1948: Paul Müller 1949: Walter Hess / Egas Moniz 1950: Edward C. Kendall / Tadeus Reichstein / Philip S. Hench 1951: Max Theiler 1952: Selman A. Waksman 1953: Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann 1954: John Franklin Enders / Thomas Huckle Weller / Frederick Chapman Robbins

1955: Hugo Theorell 1956: André F. Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards 1957: Daniel Bovet 1958: George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg 1959: Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg 1960: Frank Macfarlane Burnet / Peter Medawar 1961: Georg von Békésy 1962: Francis Crick / James D. Watson / Maurice Wilkins 1963: Sir John Eccles / Alan L. Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley 1964: Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen 1965: François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod 1966: Peyton Rous / Charles B. Huggins 1967: Ragnar Granit / Haldan K. Hartline / George Wald 1968: Robert W. Holley / H. Gobind Khorana / Marshall W. Nirenberg 1969: Max Delbrück / Alfred D. Hershey / Salvador E. Luria 1970: Sir Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod 1971: Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. 1972: Gerald M. Edelman / Rodney R. Porter 1973: Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen 1974: Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George E. Palade 1975: David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard M. Temin 1976: Baruch S. Blumberg / D. Carleton Gajdusek 1977: Roger Guillemin / Andrew V. Schally / Rosalyn Yalow 1978: Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith 1979: Allan M. Cormack / Godfrey N. Hounsfield 1980: Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George D. Snell 1981: Roger W. Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten N. Wiesel 1982: Sune K. Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John R. Vane 1983: Barbara McClintock 1984: Niels K. Jerne / Georges J.F. Köhler / César Milstein 1985: Michael S. Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein 1986: Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini 1987: Susumu Tonegawa 1988: James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings 1989: J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus 1990: Joseph E. Murray / E. Donnall Thomas 1991: Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann 1992: Edmond H. Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs 1993: Richard J. Roberts / Phillip A. Sharp 1994: Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell 1995: Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus 1996: Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel 1997: Stanley B. Prusiner 1998: Robert F. Furchgott / Louis J. Ignarro / Ferid Murad 1999: Günter Blobel 2000: Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric R. Kandel 2001: Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Sir Paul Nurse 2002: Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston 2003: Paul C. Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield 2004: Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck 2005: Barry J. Marshall / J. Robin Warren 2006: Andrew Z. Fire / Craig C. Mello 2007: Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies

Literature

Main article: Nobel Prize in Literature

1901: Sully Prudhomme 1902: Theodor Mommsen 1903: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson 1904: Frédéric Mistral / José Echegaray 1905: Henryk Sienkiewicz 1906: Giosuè Carducci 1907: Rudyard Kipling 1908: Rudolf Eucken 1909: Selma Lagerlöf 1910: Paul Heyse 1911: Maurice Maeterlinck 1912: Gerhart Hauptmann 1913: Rabindranath Tagore 1914: no award 1915: Romain Rolland 1916: Verner von Heidenstam 1917: Karl Gjellerup / Henrik Pontoppidan 1918: no award 1919: Carl Spitteler 1920: Knut Hamsun 1921: Anatole France 1922: Jacinto Benavente 1923: William Butler Yeats 1924: Władysław Reymont 1925: George Bernard Shaw 1926: Grazia Deledda 1927: Henri Bergson 1928: Sigrid Undset 1929: Thomas Mann 1930: Sinclair Lewis 1931: Erik Axel Karlfeldt 1932: John Galsworthy 1933: Ivan Bunin 1934: Luigi Pirandello 1935: no award 1936: Eugene O'Neill 1937: Roger Martin du Gard 1938: Pearl Buck 1939: Frans Eemil Sillanpää 1940: no award 1941: no award 1942: no award 1943: no award 1944: Johannes V. Jensen 1945: Gabriela Mistral 1946: Hermann Hesse 1947: André Gide 1948: T. S. Eliot 1949: William Faulkner 1950: Bertrand Russell 1951: Pär Lagerkvist 1952: François Mauriac 1953: Winston Churchill 1954: Ernest Hemingway

1955: Halldór Laxness 1956: Juan Ramón Jiménez 1957: Albert Camus 1958: Boris Pasternak 1959: Salvatore Quasimodo 1960: Saint-John Perse 1961: Ivo Andrić 1962: John Steinbeck 1963: Giorgos Seferis 1964: Jean-Paul Sartre (refused)[1] 1965: Mikhail Sholokhov 1966: Samuel Agnon / Nelly Sachs 1967: Miguel Ángel Asturias 1968: Yasunari Kawabata 1969: Samuel Beckett 1970: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1971: Pablo Neruda 1972: Heinrich Böll 1973: Patrick White 1974: Eyvind Johnson / Harry Martinson 1975: Eugenio Montale 1976: Saul Bellow 1977: Vicente Aleixandre 1978: Isaac Bashevis Singer 1979: Odysseus Elytis 1980: Czesław Miłosz 1981: Elias Canetti 1982: Gabriel García Márquez 1983: William Golding 1984: Jaroslav Seifert 1985: Claude Simon 1986: Wole Soyinka 1987: Joseph Brodsky 1988: Naguib Mahfouz 1989: Camilo José Cela 1990: Octavio Paz 1991: Nadine Gordimer 1992: Derek Walcott 1993: Toni Morrison 1994: Kenzaburo Oe 1995: Seamus Heaney 1996: Wisława Szymborska 1997: Dario Fo 1998: José Saramago 1999: Günter Grass 2000: Gao Xingjian 2001: V. S. Naipaul 2002: Imre Kertész 2003: J. M. Coetzee 2004: Elfriede Jelinek 2005: Harold Pinter 2006: Orhan Pamuk 2007: Doris Lessing

Peace

Main article: Nobel Peace Prize

1901: Henry Dunant / Frédéric Passy 1902: Élie Ducommun / Albert Gobat 1903: Randal Cremer 1904: Institute of International Law 1905: Bertha von Suttner 1906: Theodore Roosevelt 1907: Ernesto Teodoro Moneta / Louis Renault 1908: Klas Pontus Arnoldson / Fredrik Bajer 1909: Auguste Beernaert / Paul Henri d'Estournelles de Constant 1910: Permanent International Peace Bureau 1911: Tobias Asser / Alfred Fried 1912: Elihu Root 1913: Henri La Fontaine 1914: no award 1915: no award 1916: no award 1917: International Committee of the Red Cross 1918: no award 1919: Woodrow Wilson 1920: Léon Bourgeois 1921: Hjalmar Branting / Christian Lange 1922: Fridtjof Nansen 1923: no award 1924: no award 1925: Sir Austen Chamberlain / Charles G. Dawes 1926: Aristide Briand / Gustav Stresemann 1927: Ferdinand Buisson / Ludwig Quidde 1928: no award 1929: Frank B. Kellogg 1930: Nathan Söderblom 1931: Jane Addams / Nicholas Murray Butler 1932: no award 1933: Sir Norman Angell 1934: Arthur Henderson 1935: Carl von Ossietzky 1936: Carlos Saavedra Lamas 1937: The Viscount Cecil of Chelwood 1938: Nansen International Office for Refugees 1939: no award 1940: no award 1941: no award 1942: no award 1943: no award 1944: International Committee of the Red Cross 1945: Cordell Hull 1946: Emily Greene Balch / John R. Mott 1947: Friends Service Council / American Friends Service Committee 1948: no award 1949: Lord Boyd Orr 1950: Ralph Bunche 1951: Léon Jouhaux 1952: Albert Schweitzer 1953: George C. Marshall 1954: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

1955: no award 1956: no award 1957: Lester Bowles Pearson 1958: Georges Pire 1959: Philip Noel-Baker 1960: Albert Lutuli 1961: Dag Hammarskjöld (posthumous) 1962: Linus Pauling 1963: International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies 1964: Martin Luther King, Jr. 1965: United Nations Children's Fund 1966: no award 1967: no award 1968: René Cassin 1969: International Labour Organization 1970: Norman Borlaug 1971: Willy Brandt 1972: no award 1973: Henry Kissinger / Le Duc Tho 1974: Seán MacBride / Eisaku Sato 1975: Andrei Sakharov 1976: Betty Williams / Mairead Corrigan 1977: Amnesty International 1978: Anwar al-Sadat / Menachem Begin 1979: Mother Teresa 1980: Adolfo Pérez Esquivel 1981: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1982: Alva Myrdal / Alfonso García Robles 1983: Lech Wałęsa 1984: Desmond Tutu 1985: International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War 1986: Elie Wiesel 1987: Óscar Arias 1988: United Nations Peacekeeping Forces 1989: Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama 1990: Mikhail Gorbachev 1991: Aung San Suu Kyi 1992: Rigoberta Menchú 1993: Nelson Mandela / F.W. de Klerk 1994: Yasser Arafat / Shimon Peres / Yitzhak Rabin 1995: Joseph Rotblat / Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs 1996: Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo / José Ramos-Horta 1997: International Campaign to Ban Landmines / Jody Williams 1998: John Hume / David Trimble 1999: Médecins Sans Frontières 2000: Kim Dae-jung 2001: United Nations / Kofi Annan 2002: Jimmy Carter 2003: Shirin Ebadi 2004: Wangari Maathai 2005: International Atomic Energy Agency / Mohamed ElBaradei 2006: Grameen Bank / Muhammad Yunus 2007: Al Gore / Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Economics

Main article: Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel

1969: Ragnar Frisch / Jan Tinbergen 1970: Paul A. Samuelson 1971: Simon Kuznets 1972: John Hicks / Kenneth J. Arrow 1973: Wassily Leontief 1974: Gunnar Myrdal / Friedrich August von Hayek 1975: Leonid Kantorovich / Tjalling C. Koopmans 1976: Milton Friedman 1977: Bertil Ohlin / James Edward Meade 1978: Herbert A. Simon 1979: Theodore William Schultz / Sir Arthur Lewis 1980: Lawrence R. Klein 1981: James Tobin 1982: George J. Stigler 1983: Gerard Debreu 1984: Richard Stone 1985: Franco Modigliani 1986: James McGill Buchanan, Jr. 1987: Robert M. Solow 1988: Maurice Allais

1989: Trygve Haavelmo 1990: Harry M. Markowitz / Merton H. Miller / William F. Sharpe 1991: Ronald H. Coase 1992: Gary S. Becker 1993: Robert W. Fogel / Douglass C. North 1994: John C. Harsanyi / John Forbes Nash, Jr. / Reinhard Selten 1995: Robert Lucas, Jr. 1996: James A. Mirrlees / William Vickrey 1997: Robert C. Merton / Myron S. Scholes 1998: Amartya Sen 1999: Robert A. Mundell 2000: James J. Heckman / Daniel L. McFadden 2001: George A. Akerlof / A. Michael Spence / Joseph E. Stiglitz 2002: Daniel Kahneman / Vernon L. Smith 2003: Robert F. Engle III / Clive W. J. Granger 2004: Finn E. Kydland / Edward C. Prescott 2005: Robert J. Aumann / Thomas C. Schelling 2006: Edmund S. Phelps 2007: Leonid Hurwicz / Eric S. Maskin / Roger B. Myerson

See also

• Nobel laureates by country
• Nobel Prize laureates by secondary school affiliation
• Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation

References

External links

• The Nobel Foundation

v • d • e Nobel Prizes Chemistry · Literature · Peace · Physics · Physiology or Medicine Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences

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